Compositions and methods for the treatment of fat infiltration in muscle

ABSTRACT

This disclosure provides methods of using compositions comprising amino acid entities to reduce fat infiltration in muscle, particularly under conditions of muscle atrophy. The disclosure also provides methods for enhancing muscle function by reducing fat infiltration in the muscle comprising administering an effective amount of the compositions to a subject in need thereof.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.16/784,453, filed Feb. 7, 2020, which is a continuation of U.S.application Ser. No. 16/446,328, filed Jun. 19, 2019, issued as U.S.Pat. No. 10,596,136, which claims priority to U.S. Ser. No. 62/687,737,filed Jun. 20, 2018, the contents of which are incorporated herein byreference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND

There are many diseases and disorders associated with increasedinfiltration of fat in muscle, e.g., muscle atrophy. Muscle atrophy isassociated with cancer, AIDS, renal failure, liver disease, spinal cordinjury, and congestive heart failure. Furthermore, disuse of musclesthrough immobilization or aging also results in muscle atrophy withincreased fat infusion in muscle.

The gold standard for treating muscle atrophy conditions is recovery offunction. However, direct assessment of muscle functional muscle mass ischallenging (Evans et al., 2019, Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia andMuscle, 10:14-21). Furthermore, the ability to reduce infiltration offat in muscle is an important therapeutic target, with few if anypharmacological agents available.

Thus, there is a need to identify pharmacological methods of reducingfat infiltration in muscle, and to use such agents to reduce fatinfiltration in muscle, particularly under conditions of muscle atrophy.Furthermore, there is a need to identify markers of functional musclemass to develop additional metabolic rebalancing compositions forenhancing muscle mass and function (relative to not receiving anytherapy), such as for treating muscle-related disease and disorderswhere fat infiltration in muscle occurs.

SUMMARY

The invention provides method for reducing fat infiltration in musclecomprising administering to a subject at risk of fat infiltration inmuscle a composition comprising an Active Moiety. The Active Moietycomprises:

a) a leucine amino acid entity, an arginine amino acid entity, and aglutamine amino acid entity;

b) a N-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity; and

c) an essential amino acid (EAA)-entity chosen from a histidine aminoacid-entity, a lysine amino acid-entity, a phenylalanine aminoacid-entity, and a threonine amino acid-entity or a combination of two,three, or four of the EAAs.

The method can be used to reduce fat infiltration in muscle of a subjectat risk of fat infiltration in muscle who has a rotator cuff injury, andin particular administration of the composition precedes a surgery forthe rotator cuff injury. The invention can include determining a levelof fat infiltration in shoulder muscle affected by the rotator cuffinjury, e.g., before surgery or after surgery. In a specific embodiment,the subject with a rotator cuff injury is an elderly subject.

Alternatively, the method can be used to reduce fat infiltration inmuscle of a subject at risk of fat infiltration in muscle who haschronic back pain (fat infiltration in paraspinal muscles); HIV patients(fat infiltration in locomotor muscles); spinal cord injury; stroke;COPD; end-stage liver disease (ESLD), e.g., hepatic encephalopathy,variceal bleeding, portal hypertension, ascites, infection risk, sepsis,all-cause hospitalization, and all-cause and liver-related mortality;and muscle weakness associated with ageing. Furthermore, theadministering the composition to the subject at risk of fat infiltrationin muscle can improve a muscle function of sequestering glucose, e.g.,when the subject at risk for fat infiltration in muscle has diabetes ormetabolic disease.

In yet another alternative, the subject at risk of fat infiltration inmuscle has cancer, e.g., colorectal cancer or periampullary cancer.Preferably the cancer is treated surgically in conjuction with themethods of the invention.

In still another alternative, the subject at risk for fat infiltrationin muscle does not have significant increase in BMI, sarcopenia, orother overt conditions, or the subject at risk for fat infiltration inmuscle suffers from cirrhosis without sarcopenia.

Very few reliable methods are available to measure intramuscular fatinfiltration (IMF); magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of them.Computer tomography (CT) can also be used, but it is not as efficient atMRI.

A significant advantage of the invention is the ability to finelyregulate the amount and relative ratio of each amino acid in thecomposition, which is not possible with peptides of more than 20 aminoacids in length, including proteins. Thus, in the methods of theinvention, the composition preferably does not include a peptide of morethan 20 amino acid residues in length. In another aspect, at least oneof methionine (M), trytophan (W), valine (V), or cysteine (C) is absent,or if present, is present at less than 1 weight (wt.) % of dry weight,particulary dry weight of the Active Moiety. Furthermore, thecomposition can further comprise an isoleucine amino acid entity, avaline amino acid entity, or both an isoleucine amino acid entity and avaline amino acid entity.

While the methods envision compositions of amino acid entities, inspecific embodiments exemplified in the application, at least one of theleucine amino acid entity, the arginine amino acid, the glutamine aminoacid entity, or one, two, three, or all of the EAA amino acid entitiesis a free amino acid; all of them can be free amino acids. Thus, it ispossible that at least 50 wt. % of the total dry wt. of the compositionis one or more amino acid entities in free form. Alternatively, at leastone of the leucine amino acid entity, the arginine amino acid entity,the glutamine amino acid entity, or one, two, three, or all of the EAAamino acid entities is in salt form; all of them can be in salt form.Thus, it is possible that at least 50 wt. % of the total dry wt. of thecomposition is one or more amino acid entities in salt form.

As demonstrated in the example, the method can be practiced with acomposition comprising about 0.5 g to about 15 g of the leucine aminoacid entity, about 0.25 g to about 10 g of the isoleucine amino acidentity, about 0.25 g to about 10 g of the valine amino acid entity,about 0.5 to about 25 g of the arginine amino acid entity, about 0.5 gto about 20 g of the glutamine amino acid entity, about 0.1 to about 5 gthe NAC or a salt thereof, about 0.05 g to about 3 g of the L-histidineor a salt thereof, about 0.05 to about 6 g of the L-lysine or a saltthereof, about 0.04 to about 2 g of the L-phenylalanine or a saltthereof, and about 0.08 to about 4 g of the L-threonine or a saltthereof entity; e.g., about 1 g of the leucine amino acid entity, about0.5 g of the isoleucine amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of the valineamino acid entity, about 1.5 g or about 1.81 of the arginine amino acidentity, about 1.33 g of the glutamine amino acid entity, about 0.15 g orabout 0.3 g of the NAC or a salt thereof, about 0.08 g of theL-histidine or a salt thereof, about 0.35 g of the L-lysine or a saltthereof, about 0.08 g of the L-phenylalanine or a salt thereof, andabout 0.17 g of the L-threonine or a salt thereof.

According to the invention, any method can be practices with acomposition that is a pharmaceutical composition. Thus, the compositioncan further comprise a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, such as anexcipient that is suitable for oral administration.

More broadly, the invention includes a method for improving musclefunction in reduced-mobility or immobilized muscle by reducing fatinfiltration, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject inneed thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising at leastfour amino acids, wherein the composition reduces fat infiltration inmuscle, e.g., in the reduced-mobility or immobilized muscle. This methodcan be practiced with a composition that is a pharmaceuticalcomposition. Thus, the composition can further comprise apharmaceutically acceptable excipient, such as an excipient that issuitable for oral administration. The discovery that such compositionsare capable of reducing infiltration of fat in muscle thus allows fordetermining a degree of fat infiltration in muscle under conditions ofreduced-mobility or immobilized muscle. Any method for determining orevaluating the degree of fat infiltration in muscle can be used, e.g.,MRI, DEXA, or CT.

In these foregoing method for improving muscle function inreduced-mobility or immobilized muscle by reducing fat infiltration,wherein the composition can comprise:

a) a leucine amino acid entity, an arginine amino acid entity, and aglutamine amino acid entity;

b) a N-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity, e.g., NAC; and

c) an essential amino acid (EAA)-entity chosen from a histidine(H)-amino acid-entity, a lysine (K)-amino acid-entity, a phenylalanine(F)-amino acid-entity, and a threonine (T)-amino acid-entity or acombination of two, three, or four of the EAAs. Furthermore:

d) at least one amino acid entity is not provided as a peptide of morethan 20 amino acid residues in length. In still another aspect:

(i) the amino acid entity of (a) is selected from Table 1; and

(ii) one or both of the arginine amino acid entity and the glutamineamino acid entity are present at a higher amount (wt. %) than theleucine amino acid entity.

In these foregoing method for improving muscle function inreduced-mobility or immobilized muscle by reducing fat infiltration, thesubject can have a disease or disorder selected from the groupconsisting of a rare muscle disease, muscle atrophy, sarcopenia, muscledeterioration, muscle decay, cachexia, drug-induced myopathy, musculardystrophy, myopenia, muscle weakness, perceived muscle weakness,ICU-acquired myopathy, burns-related myopathy, a neuromuscular disorder,ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dystrophy, hyponatremia, hypokalemia, acalcium deficiency, hypercalcemia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and abone weakness disease. Alternatively, the subject can have or beidentified as having decreased muscle function due to aging, injury,muscle atrophy, infection, disease, stroke, or a fracture or othertrauma. The fracture or other trauma may be selected from rotator cuffsurgery, knee surgery, hip surgery, joint replacement, injury repairsurgery, or the subject has worn a cast. In the case of a fracture ortrauma, the subject can receive the composition after the fracture orother trauma or before the fracture or other trauma, in the latter case,e.g., in conjunction with planned elective surgery. For example, thesubject may have a rotator cuff injury, and further the subject may haverotator cuff surgery. The invention also provides for determining orevaluating fat infiltration in muscle in the subject to evaluateeffectiveness of administration of the composition in treating thedisease or disorder, decreased muscle function, or fracture or othertrauma, e.g., prior to an elective procedure. According to the inventionand exemplified below, determining or evaluating fat infiltration inmuscle reveals that a fat fraction in muscle is unchanged from beforethe treatment, or even improved. As noted above, any method fordetermining or evaluating the degree of fat infiltration in muscle canbe used, e.g., MRI, DEXA, or CT.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides method for determiningwhether a composition comprising at least four amino acids is effectivein treating a disease or disorder associated with muscle function. Thismethod comprises administering to the subject a composition comprisingat least four amino acids and determining whether there is a reductionin fat infiltration in muscle in the subject. Thus, fat infiltration inmuscle can serve as a surrogate for muscle function in a study, e.g., aclinical trial, post-marketing trial, prognostic assay, etc. inconjunction with treatment with a composition comprising at least fouramino acids. In particular, fat infiltration can be in muscle tissueaffected by the disease or disorder associated with muscle function.

Thus, in the situation where the subject has has a rotator cuff injury,the method can be used. For example, administration of the compositioncan precede a surgery for the rotator cuff injury. In this situation,the invention provides for determining a level of fat infiltration inshoulder muscle affected by the rotator cuff injury before surgery. Inconjunction with evaluating progression and prognosis, it is alsopossible to determine a level of fat infiltration in shoulder muscleaffected by the rotator cuff injury after surgery.

In the method for determining whether a composition comprising at leastfour amino acids is effective in treating a disease or disorderassociated with muscle function, the subject at risk of fat infiltrationin muscle has chronic back pain (fat infiltration in paraspinalmuscles); HIV patients (fat infiltration in locomotor muscles); spinalcord injury; stroke; COPD; ESLD, e.g., hepatic encephalopathy, varicealbleeding, portal hypertension, ascites, infection risk, sepsis,all-cause hospitalization, and all-cause and liver-related mortality;and muscle weakness associated with ageing. Alternatively, the methodimproves a muscle function of sequestering glucose in a subject at riskof fat infiltration in muscle, e.g., if the subject has diabetes ormetabolic disease. In yet another alternative, the subject at risk offat infiltration in muscle has cancer, such as colorectal cancer orperiampullary cancer. Moreover, the subject at risk for fat infiltrationin muscle may not have significant increase in BMI, sarcopenia, or otherovert conditions. Thus, the subject at risk for fat infiltration inmuscle may suffer from cirrhosis without sarcopenia, or may have ESLD,e.g., hepatic encephalopathy, variceal bleeding, portal hypertension,ascites, infection risk, sepsis, all-cause hospitalization, andall-cause and liver-related mortality. As noted above, any method fordetermining or evaluating the degree of fat infiltration in muscle canbe used, e.g., MRI, DEXA, or CT.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Change in vastus lateralis cross-sectional area (CSA) and fibertypes by histology during limb immobilization (Day 15 vs. Day 8).

FIGS. 2A and 2B. Change in quadriceps fat fraction during immobilization(Day 15 vs. Day 8) in both immobilized and nonimmobilized legs. 2A.Representative images depicting fat fraction (FF) changes in theimmobilized and non-immobilized thighs of a subject who receivedtreatment and a subject who received placebo. Purple represents fatfraction; red represents muscle fraction. 2B. Plot of fat fractionchanges quantified across all subjects.

FIG. 3. Change in vastus lateralis electrical impedance measurement(EIM) parameters (phase, max reactance, and change in reactance slope)during immobilization & recovery. Data are mean±SEM from n=9 (Pbo) andn=10 (therapeutic).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention is based on the unprecedented discovery thatcompositions comprising amino acid entities are capable of reducing fatinfiltration in muscle. This discovery provides for treatment of anumber of diseases and disorders involving fat infiltration in muscle.In some cases, fat infiltration in muscle results in increasedmorbidity, worsening of the disease or disorder, or predicts a worseoutcome from an intervention such as surgery to repair a torn rotatorcuff.

Thus the invention provides, at least in part, methods of reducing fatinfiltration in muscle by administering an Active Moiety composition ofthe invention, which is a composition comprising at least four differentamino acid entities. In some cases, the invention further comprisesdetermining or evaluating the extent or degree of infiltration of fat inmuscle, e.g., as a diagnostic, a prognostic indicator, to evaluateprogress of the disease or disorder with or without treatment, or as asurrogate of muscle health, or any combination of the foregoing. Varioustechniques are available for determining the extent of infiltration offat in muscle. The most rigorous techniques are computed tomograph (CT)and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

The methods of reducing fat infiltration in muscle may also provide amethod of treating any or all of immobilization, malnutrition, fasting,aging, autophagy, reduced protein synthesis, anabolic resistance,junction integrity (e.g., neuromuscular junction integrity), insulinresistance, decreased mitochondrial biogenesis, an energy deficit, oranaplerosis in a subject that includes administering to a subject inneed thereof an effective amount of a pharmaceutical compositionincluding defined amino acid components. In some embodiments, thesubject has a rare muscle disease. In some embodiments, the subject hassarcopenia, muscle deterioration, decay, atrophy, cachexia, drug-inducedmyopathy, muscular dystrophy, or myopenia. In some embodiments, thesubject has a fracture or other trauma. In some embodiments, the subjecthas a drug-induced myopathy. In some embodiments, the subject has astatin-induced myopathy. In some embodiments, the subject has asteroid-induced myopathy. In some embodiments, the subject has animmunosuppressant-induced myopathy. In some embodiments, the subject hasa chemotherapeutic-induced myopathy. In some embodiments, the subjecthas an alcohol-induced myopathy.

In addition to evaluating or determining the extent of fat infiltrationin muscle, improvements in muscle function can be assessed by performingmetrics selected from maximal isometric knee strength test (e.g., todetermine changes in muscle strength), muscle biopsy (e.g., to determinemuscle fiber quality), and electrical impedance myography (EIM) (e.g.,to determine muscle health, such as resistive and capacitive propertiesof muscle tissue and sensitivity to disuse-related atrophy), or otherstandard clinical performance assessments such as the Short PerformancePhysical Battery (SPPB), Harris Hip Score and others.

In some embodiments, the composition is for use as a medicament inimproving muscle function in a subject at risk of or experiencing fatinfiltration in muscle. In some embodiments, the composition is for useas a medicament in treating a muscle disease or disorder involving fatinfiltration in the muscle in a subject.

In some embodiments, the composition is for use in the manufacture of amedicament for improving muscle function in a subject. at risk of orexperiencing fat infiltration in muscle. In some embodiments, thecomposition is for use in the manufacture of a medicament for treating amuscle disease or disorder involving fat infiltration in the muscle in asubject.

Additionally, the composition may be useful as a dietary supplement,e.g., a nutritional supplement, dietary formulation, functional food,medical food, food, or beverage comprising a composition describedherein. Another embodiment provides a nutritional supplement, dietaryformulation, functional food, medical food, food, or beverage comprisinga composition described herein for use in the management of any of thediseases or disorders described herein.

One embodiment provides a method of maintaining or improving musclehealth, muscle function, muscle functional performance, or musclestrength, comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of acomposition described herein to reduce fat infiltration in muscle in thesubject. Another embodiment provides a method of providing nutritionalsupport or supplementation to a subject suffering from muscle atrophycomprising administering to the subject an effective amount of acomposition described herein to reduce fat infiltration in muscle in thesubject. Yet another embodiment provides a method of providingnutritional support or supplementation that aids in the management ofmuscle atrophy to a subject comprising administering to the subject inneed thereof an effective amount of a composition described herein toreduce fat infiltration in muscle in the subject.

Definitions

Terms used in the claims and specification are defined as set forthbelow unless otherwise specified.

It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appendedclaims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referentsunless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

The term “fat infiltration in muscle” means an increase in the fatfraction of muscle below the muscle fascia, as distinguished fromsubcutaneous fat. For example, fat found in the deep fascia of the thighis fat infiltration in muscle. Various publications use terms such asintramuscular fat fraction, intermuscular fat infiltration,intramuscular fat, intermuscular fat, intermuscular adipose tissue(IMAT), and myosteatosis or myostasis. All of these terms refer to fat(visible storage of lipids in adipocytes) located between muscle fibersand between muscle groups, or within myocytes themselves. Fat that hasinfiltrated in muscle appears to have some of the same characteristic asectopic or visceral fat, e.g., fat in liver or other organs, or in theabdomen.

“Reduction of fat infiltration in muscle” means that the degree orextent of fat infiltration in a subject, e.g., to muscle that isimmobilized, injured, or otherwise subject to muscle infiltration, isless than it would have been in the absence of an intervention, i.e., inthe absence of administering an Active Moiety to the subject. Thus, thefat fraction in the muscle is lower than it would have otherwise been.In one example, administration of an Active Moiety reduces fatinfiltration in muscle by 100%, i.e., it prevents it. However, theinvention includes any reduction in fat infiltration that would occur inthe absence of treatment with an Active Moiety. Preferably reduction offat infiltration in muscle is detectable. More preferably it issignificant, e.g., reaches statistical significance in a population ofsubjects in a controlled study.

The term “fat fraction” or “FF” refers to the fraction of fat orpercentage of fat in a limb, part of a limb, or body (taking the entirevolume of the limb, part of a limb, or body as the whole or 100%).Similarly, the muscle mass is the fraction of muscle or percentage ofmuscle in limb, part of a limb, or body.

In the Example described below, images depicting fat fraction (FF) showthat in a subject administered placebo, the subject's non-immobilizedleg had no change in FF, while the subject's immobilized leg hadincreased FF and decreased muscle mass. By contrast, in a subjectadministered an Active Moiety, the immobilized leg had lower fatfraction and a higher muscle content following immobilization comparedto placebo. These FF changes were quantified across all subjects.Percent change in quadriceps muscle fat fraction increased more that 10%in subjects who received placebo, compared to about 0% in subjects whoreceived Active Moiety.

The term “subject” refers to a human person, and can include, but is notlimited to, a patient, i.e., a person who is under care of a healthcareprovider (doctor, nurse practitioner, etc.). It can also mean a personin a clinical study, or a person who self-diagnoses and self-treats, ora subject who receives a dietary supplement (as broadly defined above).

As used herein, the term “Active Moiety” means a combination of four ormore amino acid entities that, in aggregate, have a physiologicaleffect. In some cases, the physiological effect can be a therapeuticeffect involving reduction of fat infiltration into muscle, as definedbelow. For example, an Active Moiety can rebalance a metabolicdysfunction in a subject suffering from a disease or disorder. An ActiveMoiety of the invention can contain other biologically activeingredients. In some examples, the Active Moiety comprises a definedcombination of four or more amino acid entities, as set out in detailbelow. The individual amino acid entities are present in the ActiveMoiety in various amounts or ratios, which can be presented as amount byweight (e.g., in grams), ratio by weight of amino acid moieties to eachother, amount by mole, amount by dry weight percent of the ActiveMoiety, amount by mole percent of the Active Moiety, caloric content,percent caloric contribution to the Active Moiety, etc. Generally, thisdisclosure will provide grams of amino acid entity in a dosage form,weight percent of an amino acid moiety relative to the weight of theActive Moiety, i.e., the weight of all the amino acid moieties and anyother biologically active ingredient present in the Active Moiety, or inratios. The abbreviation “wt.” means weight.

As used herein, the term “amino acid entity” refers to an amino acid inone or both of free form or salt form, an amino acid residue of apeptide (e.g., of a dipeptide, tripeptide, or polypeptide of 20 aminoacids or less in length), a derivative of an amino acid, a precursor ofan amino acid, or a metabolite of an amino acid (see, e.g., Table 1).Accordingly, the term “XXX amino acid entity” refers to an amino acidentity that if a free amino acid, comprises free XXX or XXX in saltform; if a peptide, refers to a peptide comprising an XXX residue; if aderivative, refers to a derivative of XXX; if a precursor, refers to aprecursor of XXX; and if a metabolite, refers to a XXX metabolite. Forexample, where XXX is leucine, then leucine amino acid entity refers tofree leucine or leucine in salt form, a peptide of less than 20 aminoacids comprising a leucine residue, a leucine derivative, a leucineprecursor, or a metabolite of leucine (where such derivative, precursor,or metabolite achieves the same physiological effect as leucine); whereXXX is arginine, then arginine amino acid entity refers to free arginineor arginine in salt form, a peptide of less than 20 amino acidscomprising an arginine residue, an arginine derivative, an arginineprecursor, or a metabolite of arginine (where such derivative,precursor, or metabolite achieves the same physiological effect asarginine); where XXX is glutamine, then glutamine amino acid entityrefers to free glutamine or glutamine in salt form, a peptide of lessthan 20 amino acids comprising a glutamine residue, a glutaminederivative, a glutamine precursor, or a metabolite of glutamine (wheresuch derivative, precursor, or metabolite achieves the samephysiological effect as glutamine); where XXX is N-acetylcysteine (NAC),then NAC-amino acid entity refers to free NAC or NAC in salt form, apeptide comprising a NAC residue, a NAC derivative, a NAC precursor, ora metabolite of NAC (where such derivative, precursor, or metaboliteachieves the same physiological effect as NAC); where XXX is histidine(H), then histidine amino acid entity refers to free histidine orhistidine in salt form, a peptide of less than 20 amino acids comprisinga histidine residue, a histidine derivative, a histidine precursor, or ametabolite of histidine (where such derivative, precursor, or metaboliteachieves the same physiological effect as histidine); where XXX islysine, then lysine amino acid entity refers to free lysine or lysine insalt form, a peptide of less than 20 amino acids comprising comprising alysine residue, a lysine derivative, a lysine precursor, or a metaboliteof lysine (where such derivative, precursor, or metabolite achieves thesame physiological effect as lysine); where XXX is phenylalanine, thenphenylalanine amino acid entity refers to free phenylalanine orphenylalanine in salt form, a peptide of less than 20 amino acidscomprising comprising a phenylalanine residue, a phenylalaninederivative, a phenylalanine precursor, or a metabolite of phenylalanine(where such derivative, precursor, or metabolite achieves the samephysiological effect as phenylalanine); or where XXX is threonine, thenthreonine amino acid entity refers to free threonine or threonine insalt form, a peptide of less than 20 amino acids comprising a threonineresidue, a threonine derivative, a threonine precursor, or a metaboliteof threonine (where such derivative, precursor, or metabolite achievesthe same physiological effect as threonine). Where the biological systemprovides for isomerization of a D-amino acid to the L-form, the D-aminoacid can be an amino acid entity.

Salts of amino acids include any physiologically tolerable, e.g.,ingestible, salt. For pharmaceutical compositions, the salt form of anamino acid present in the Active Moiety should be a pharmaceuticallyacceptable salt. In a specific example, the salt form is thehydrochloride (HCl) salt form of the amino acid.

In some embodiments, the derivative of an amino acid entity comprises anamino acid ester (e.g., an alkyl ester, e.g., an ethyl ester or a methylester of an amino acid entity) or a keto-acid.

TABLE 1 Amino acid entities include amino acids, precursors,metabolites, and derivatives of the compositions described herein.Exemplary Amino Acid Precursors Metabolites Derivatives L L-LeucineOxo-leucine HMB (beta-hydroxy- N-Acetyl- beta-methybutyrate); LeucineOxo-leucine; Isovaleryl- CoA I L-Isoleucine 2-Oxo-3-methyl-2-Oxo-3-methyl- N-Acetyl- valerate; valerate; Methylbutyrl- IsoleucineCoA V L-Valine 2-Oxo-valerate Isobutryl-CoA N-Acetyl- Valine RL-Arginine Argininosuccinate; Agmatine; N-Acetyl- Aspartate; GlutamateCreatine Arginine; Q L-Glutamine Glutamate Carbamoyl-P; GlutamateN-Acetyl- Glutamine; NAC N- Acetylserine; Glutathione; Cystine;Acetylcysteine Cystathionine; Cystathionine; Cysteamine Homocysteine;Methionine H L-Histidine Histidinol; Histidinal; Carnosine; Histamine;N-Acetyl- Ribose-5-phosphate Urocanate Histidine K L-LysineDiaminopimelate; Trimethyllysine; N-Acetyl- Aspartate SaccharopineLysine F L- Phenylpyruvate Tyrosine N-Acetyl- PhenylalaninePhenylalanine T L-Threonine Homoserine; O- Oxobutyrate N-Acetyl-PhosphoHomoserine Threonine

“About” and “approximately” shall generally mean an acceptable degree oferror for the quantity measured given the nature or precision of themeasurements. Exemplary degrees of error are within 20 percent (%),typically, within 10%, and more typically, within 5% of a given value orrange of values.

An “amino acid” refers to an organic compound having an amino group(—NH₂), a carboxylic acid group (—C(═O)OH), and a side chain bondedthrough a central carbon atom, and includes essential and non-aminoacids, as well as natural and unnatural amino acids.

The proteogenic amino acids, shown below, are known by three- andone-letter abbreviations in addition to their full names. For a givenamino acid, these abbreviations are used interchangeably herein. Forexample, Leu, L or leucine all refer to the amino acid leucine; Ile, Ior isoleucine all refer to the amino acid isoleucine; Val, V or valineall refer to the amino acid valine; Arg, R or arginine all refer to theamino acid arginine; and Gln, Q or glutamine all refer to the amino acidglutamine. Likewise, the non-natural amino acid derivativeN-acetylcysteine may be referred to interchangeably by “NAC” or“N-acetylcysteine.” Amino acids may be present as L-isomers of aminoacids to ensure physiological activity.

TABLE 2 Canonical (proteogenic) amino acid names and abbreviations Aminoacid (L isomer) Three-letter One-letter Alanine Ala A Arginine Arg RAsparagine Asn N Aspartic acid Asp D Cysteine Cys C Glutamic acid Glu EGlutamine Gln Q Glycine Gly G Histidine His H Isoleucine Ile I LeucineLeu L Lysine Lys K Methionine Met M Phenylalanine Phe F Proline Pro PSerine Ser S Threonine Thr T Tryptophan Trp W Tyrosine Tyr Y Valine ValV

A “branched chain amino acid” is an amino acid selected from leucine,isoleucine, and valine.

The term “effective amount” as used herein means an amount of an ActiveMoiety, or pharmaceutical composition comprising an Active Moiety, whichis sufficient enough to significantly and positively modify the symptomsand/or conditions to be treated (e.g., provide a positive clinicalresponse). The effective amount of an active ingredient for use in apharmaceutical composition will vary with the particular condition beingtreated, the severity of the condition, the duration of treatment, thenature of concurrent therapy, the particular active ingredient(s) beingemployed, the particular pharmaceutically-acceptable excipient(s) and/orcarrier(s) utilized, and like factors with the knowledge and expertiseof the attending physician.

A “pharmaceutical composition” described herein comprises at least oneamino acid and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. Insome embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is used as atherapeutic, a nutraceutical, a medical food, or as a supplement.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” as used herein, refers to aminoacids, materials, excipients, compositions and/or dosage forms whichare, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use incontact with the tissues of human beings and animals without excessivetoxicity, irritation, allergic response, or other problem orcomplication, commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio.

A “therapeutic effect” means a beneficial clinical effect. A beneficialclinical effect can be shown by lessening the progression of a diseaseand/or alleviating one or more symptoms of the disease. Preferably, thebeneficial clinical effect is statistically significant.

A “health effect” in the context of a food supplement means that thereis some benefit to the normal structure or function of a human or targetorgan in a human.

A “unit dose” or “unit dosage” as used herein means an amount or dose ofmedicine prepared in an individual packet or container for convenience,safety, or monitoring. A “unit dose” or “unit dosage” comprises the drugproduct or drug products in the form in which they are marketed for use,with a specific mixture of active ingredients and inactive components(excipients), in a particular configuration (such as a capsule shell,for example), and apportioned into a particular dose.

As used herein, the terms “treat,” “treating,” or “treatment” refer inone embodiment, to ameliorating a disease or disorder of fatinfiltration in muscle (i.e., slowing or arresting or reducing thedevelopment of the disease or disorder or at least one of the clinicalsymptoms thereof). In another embodiment, “treat,” “treating,” or“treatment” refers to alleviating or ameliorating at least one physicalparameter of fat infiltration in muscle, including those which may notbe discernible by the patient. In yet another embodiment, “treat,”“treating,” or “treatment” refers to modulating a symptom of a diseaseor disorder of fat infiltration in muscle. In yet another embodiment,“treat,” “treating,” or “treatment” refers to preventing or delaying theonset or development or progression of a disease or disorder of fatinfiltration in muscle.

Active Moieties: Compositions of Amino Acid Entities

US Patent Publication No. 2018/0207119, filed Dec. 19, 2017, entitledAMINO ACID COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR THE TREATMENT OF MUSCLE DISEASESAND DISORDERS, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/847,289, filedDec. 19, 2017, entitled AMINO ACID COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR THETREATMENT OF LIVER DISEASES, each of which is specifically incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety, disclose compositions of amino acidentities, i.e., Active Moieties, which may reduce fat infiltration inmuscle, as can be shown by the methods herein described.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a leucine amino acidentity, an arginine amino acid entity, a glutamine amino acid entity;and an antioxidant or reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger (e.g., aN-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity, e.g., NAC).

In some embodiments, the composition further comprises one or moreessential amino acid (EAA)-entities. In some embodiments, theEAA-entities are chosen from one, two, three, or more (e.g., all) of ahistidine (H)-amino acid-entity, a lysine (K)-amino acid-entity, aphenylalanine (F)-amino acid-entity, and a threonine (T)-aminoacid-entity.

In some embodiments, the composition is capable of improving one or morephysiological symptoms selected from immobilization, malnutrition,fasting, aging, autophagy, reduced protein synthesis, anabolicresistance, neuromuscular junction integrity, insulin resistance,decreased mitochondrial biogenesis, anaplerosis, myogenesis, or anenergy deficit.

As already noted, the present disclosure provides compositions that caninclude a leucine amino acid entity, an arginine amino acid entity, aglutamine amino acid entity; and an antioxidant or reactive oxygenspecies (ROS) scavenger, e.g., a N-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity, e.g.,NAC. In some embodiments, the total weight of the leucine amino acidentity, arginine amino acid entity, glutamine amino acid entity; and ROSscavenger, e.g., a N-NAC entity, e.g., NAC, can be greater than thetotal wt. of other amino acid entities in the composition (e.g., ActiveMoiety).

In certain embodiments, two, three, or more (e.g., all) of methionine(M), tryptophan (W), valine (V), or cysteine (C) may be absent from thecomposition (e.g., Active Moiety), or if present, are present at lessthan 1 weight (wt.) %, less than 0.5 wt. %, or less than 0.1 wt. %, eachof the foregoing on a dry weight basis. In some embodiments, methionine,tryptophan, valine, or cysteine, if present, may be present in anoligopeptide, polypeptide, or protein, with the proviso that the proteinis not whey, casein, lactalbumin, or any other protein used as anutritional supplement, medical food, or similar product, whetherpresent as intact protein or protein hydrolysate.

In some embodiments, one or both of the arginine amino acid entity andthe glutamine amino acid entity are present at a higher amount (wt. %)than the leucine amino acid entity. The arginine amino acid entity canbe present, e.g., at an amount of at least 2 wt. %, at least 3 wt. %, atleast 4 wt. %, at least 5 wt. %, at least 6 wt. %, at least 7 wt. %, orat least 8 wt. % greater than the leucine amino acid entity. Theglutamine amino acid entity can be present, e.g., at an amount of atleast 2 wt. %, at least 3 wt. %, at least 4 wt. %, or at least 5 wt. %greater than the L-leucine amino acid entity.

The weight ratio of a particular amino acid or particular amino acids ina composition or mixture of amino acids, i.e., in an Active Moiety, isthe ratio of the weight of the particular amino acid or amino acids inthe composition or mixture compared to the total weight of amino acidspresent in the composition or mixture. This value is calculated bydividing the weight of the particular amino acid or of the particularamino acids in the composition or mixture by the weight of all aminoacids present in the composition or mixture and multiplying times 100.Percent weight on a dry weight basis refers to the percent weight ofsolid materials, which is relevant because as exemplified herein theActive Moiety composition may be dissolved or suspended in a liquid,particularly water, which provides considerable additional weight to afinal liquid formulation.

The Active Moiety may further comprise additional branched-chain aminoacid (BCAA)-entities, e.g., one or both of an isoleucine aminoacid-entity and a valine amino acid-entity; alternatively, both theisoleucine amino acid-entity and the valine amino acid-entity arepresent. The leucine amino acid entity can be present at a higher amount(% by weight) than one or both of the isoleucine amino acid-entity andthe valine amino acid-entity (e.g., the leucine entity is present at anamount of at least 10 wt. %, at least 15 wt. %, at least 20 wt. %, atleast 25 wt. %, at least 30 wt. %, at least 35 wt. %, at least 40 wt. %,at least 45 wt. %, or at least 50 wt. % greater than one or both of theisoleucine amino acid-entity and the valine amino acid-entity).

The composition can further comprise one or more essential amino acid(EAA)-entities. In certain embodiments the EAA-entities are chosen fromone, two, three, or four of a histidine amino acid-entity, a lysineamino acid-entity, a phenylalanine amino acid-entity, and a threonineamino acid-entity.

If present, the histidine amino acid-entity can be present in an amountof at least 0.5 wt. %, at least 0.6 wt. %, at least 0.7 wt. %, at least0.8 wt. %, at least 0.9 wt. %, at least 1.0 wt. %, at least 1.1 wt. %,at least 1.2 wt. %, at least 1.3 wt. % or at least 1.4 wt. % of thecomposition on a dry weight basis.

If present, the lysine amino acid-entity can be present in amount of atleast 2 wt. %, at least 3 wt. %, at least 4 wt. %, at least 5 wt. %, orat least 6 wt. % of the composition on a dry weight basis.

If present, the phenylalanine amino acid-entity can be present in anamount of at least 0.5 wt. %, at least 0.6 wt. %, at least 0.7 wt. %, atleast 0.8 wt. %, at least 0.9 wt. %, at least 1.0 wt. %, at least 1.1wt. %, at least 1.2 wt. %, at least 1.3 wt. % or at least 1.4 wt. % ofthe composition on a dry weight basis.

If present, the threonine amino acid-entity can be present in amount ofat least 0.5 wt. %, at least 1 wt. %, at least 1.5 wt. %, at least 2 wt.%, at least 2.5%, or at least 3 wt. % of the composition on a dry weightbasis.

The histidine amino acid entity, lysine amino acid entity, phenylalanineamino acid entity, and threonine amino acid entity can all be present inthe composition, including in the wt. % set forth in the preceeding fourparagraphs.

The weight (wt.) ratio of the leucine amino acid entity, the arginineamino acid entity, the glutamine amino acid entity, and the NAC-aminoacid entity in the Active Moiety can be about 1-3:2-4:2-4:0.1-2.5. Incertain embodiments, the wt. ratio of the leucine amino acid entity, thearginine amino acid entity, the glutamine amino acid entity, and theNAC-amino acid entity is about 2:3:2.66:0.3. In certain embodiments, thewt. ratio of the leucine amino acid entity, the arginine amino acidentity, the glutamine amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entityis about 2:3:2.66:0.6.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a ratio of branched-chainamino acids to total amino acids of about 4:7 to about 1:2.

In some embodiments, the wt. ratio of the leucine amino acid entity, theisoleucine amino acid entity, the valine amino acid entity, the arginineamino acid entity, the glutamine amino acid entity, the NAC-amino acidentity, the histidine amino acid entity, the lysine amino acid entity,the phenylalanine amino acid entity, and the threonine amino acid entityis about1-3:0.5-1.5:0.5-1.5:2-4:2-4:0.1-0.5:0.1-0.5:0.2-1.0:0.1-0.5:0.2-0.7. Incertain embodiments, the wt. ratio of the leucine amino acid entity, theisoleucine amino acid entity, the valine amino acid entity, the arginineamino acid entity, the glutamine amino acid entity, the NAC-amino acidentity, the histidine amino acid entity, the lysine amino acid entity,the phenylalanine amino acid entity, and the threonine amino acid entityis about 2.0:1.0:1.0:3.0:2.66:0.3:0.16:0.7:0.16:0.34. In certainembodiments, the wt. ratio of the leucine amino acid entity, theisoleucine amino acid entity, the valine amino acid entity, the arginineamino acid entity, the glutamine amino acid entity, the NAC-amino acidentity, the histidine amino acid entity, the lysine amino acid entity,the phenylalanine amino acid entity, and the threonine amino acid entityis about 2.0:1.0:1.0:3.0:2.66:0.3:0.16:0.7:0.16:0.68.

In some embodiments, the total wt. of amino acids present in a unit doseof an Active Moiety is between about 4 g and about 80 g. In certainembodiments, the total wt. of amino acids present is about 6 g, about 18g, about 24 g, about 48 g, about 68 g, or about 72 g in a unit dose ofan active moiety. In an example, a unit dose of the Active Moietycomprises at least 1 g of the leucine amino acid entity, at least 0.5 gof the isoleucine amino acid entity, at least 0.5 g of the valine aminoacid entity, at least 1.5 g of the arginine amino acid entity, at least1.33 g of the glutamine amino acid entity, at least 0.15 g of theNAC-amino acid entity, at least 0.08 g of the histidine amino acidentity, at least 0.35 g of the lysine amino acid entity, at least 0.08 gof the phenylalanine amino acid entity, and at least 0.17 g of thethreonine amino acid entity. In some embodiments, the compositioncomprises at least 1 g of the leucine amino acid entity, at least 0.5 gof the isoleucine amino acid entity, at least 0.5 g of the valine aminoacid entity, at least 1.5 g of the arginine amino acid entity, at least1.33 g of the glutamine amino acid entity, at least 0.3 g of theNAC-amino acid entity, at least 0.08 g of the histidine amino acidentity, at least 0.35 g of the lysine amino acid entity, at least 0.08 gof the phenylalanine amino acid entity, and at least 0.17 g of thethreonine amino acid entity. Alternatively, the foregoing Active Moietycomprises 0.3 g of NAC instead of 0.15 g. Multiples of all these amountsin unit doses of the Active Moiety are also contemplated, e.g., 2-fold,3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, etc.

Preferably, at least one amino acid entity is a free amino acid, e.g.,one or more (e.g., all) amino acid entities are a free amino acid. Insome embodiments, the leucine amino acid entity, the arginine amino acidentity, the glutamine amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entityis a free amino acid entity. In certain embodiment, the leucine aminoacid entity, the isoleucine amino acid entity, the valine amino acidentity, the arginine amino acid entity, the glutamine amino acid entity,and the NAC-amino acid entity a free amino acid. In certain embodiments,the leucine amino acid entity, the isoleucine amino acid entity, thevaline amino acid entity, the arginine amino acid entity, the glutamineamino acid entity, the NAC-amino acid entity, the histidine amino acidentity, the lysine amino acid entity, the phenylalanine amino acidentity, and the threonine amino acid entity is a free amino acid.

Alternatively, at least one amino acid entity is in a salt form, e.g.,one or more (e.g., all) of the amino acid entities is in a salt form. Insome embodiments, wherein the leucine amino acid entity, the arginineamino acid entity, the glutamine amino acid entity, and the NAC-aminoacid entity is in a salt form. In certain embodiments, the leucine aminoacid entity, the isoleucine amino acid entity, the valine amino acidentity, the arginine amino acid entity, the glutamine amino acid entity,and the NAC-amino acid entity is in a salt form. In certain embodiments,the leucine amino acid entity, the isoleucine amino acid entity, thevaline amino acid entity, the arginine amino acid entity, the glutamineamino acid entity, the NAC-amino acid entity, the histidine amino acidentity, the lysine amino acid entity, the phenylalanine amino acidentity, and the threonine amino acid entity is in a salt form.

In some embodiments, the Active Moiety comprises a combination of 4 to20 different amino acid entities, e.g., 5 to 15 different amino acidentities. In other embodiments, the Active Moiety consists of 4 to 16different amino acid entities; more particularly, 5 to 15 differentamino acid entities. For example, the Active Moiety can further compriseone or more (e.g., all) or more of serine, glycine, glutamine, HMB,citrulline, glutamine, L-cysteine, cystine, or glutathione.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises arginine, glutamine,N-acetylcysteine; a BCAA chosen from one, two, or all of leucine,isoleucine, and valine; and an essential amino acid EAA chosen from one,two, or all of histidine, lysine, phenylalanine, and threonine.

An aspect of the present disclosure provides a composition comprising anActive Moiety comprised of free amino acids and one or morepharmaceutically acceptable excipients, such that the amino acidsinclude leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine,N-acetylcysteine, histidine, lysine, phenylalanine, and threonine.

An aspect of the present disclosure provides a composition comprising anActive Moiety consisting of free amino acids and one or morepharmaceutically acceptable excipients, such that the amino acidsconsist of leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine,N-acetylcysteine, histidine, lysine, phenylalanine, and threonine.

An exemplary Active Moiety can include leucine, isoleucine, valine,arginine HCl, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, histidine, lysine,phenylalanine, and threonine as its defined amino acid components in awt. ratio of 2.0:1.0:1.0:3.62:2.66:0.3:0.16:0.7:0.16:0.34 (Table 3). TheActive Moiety can include leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine,glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, histidine, lysine, phenylalanine, andthreonine as its defined amino acid components in a wt. ratio of2.0:1.0:1.0:3.0:2.66:0.3:0.16:0.7:0.16:0.34.

TABLE 3 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition. Total gTotal g weight g/ g/ daily g/ daily Amino acid ratio packet dose 1 dose1 dose 2 dose 2 Leucine 2.0 1.0 1.0 3 4 12 Isoleucine 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.5 26 Valine 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.5 2 6 Arginine HCl 3.62 1.81 1.81 5.43 7.24 21.72Glutamine 2.66 1.33 1.33 3.99 5.32 15.96 N-acetyl- 0.3 0.15 0.15 0.450.6 1.8 cysteine Histidine 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.24 0.32 0.96 Lysine 0.7 0.350.35 1.05 1.4 4.2 Phenylalanine 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.24 0.32 0.96 Threonine0.34 0.17 0.17 0.51 0.68 2.04 Total amino ~6 g ~6 g ~18 g ~24 g ~72 gacids

The composition can be administered in packets, e.g., packets containingabout 6 g total amino acids as exemplified.

The composition can be administered three times daily at a dose of about6 g of Active Moiety, i.e., total amino acids. In some embodiments,about 18 g, about 22, about 24 g, about 68 g or about 72 g total aminoacids is administered per day. In an example, the composition isadministered three times daily at a dose of about 24 g total amino acidsfor a total of about 72 g total amino acids is administered per day.

Methods of Treatment with an Active Moiety to Reduce Fat Infiltration inMuscle

The Active Moiety composition as described herein can be administered toreduce fat infiltration in muscle. Fat infiltration in muscle is animportant predictor of muscle function and mobility, independent of aswell as associated with other diseases and disorders of muscle atrophy(see, e.g., Addison et al., 2014, Int. J. Endocrinology,dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/309570) and has been identified as acomplication of cirrhosis independently of other co-morbidities, e.g.,sarcopenia (see, e.g., Bhanji et al., 2018, Hep. Intl.,doi.org/10.1007/s12072-018-9875-9). Fat infiltration has an impact onmuscle quality, so identification of a therapeutic that can reduce fatinfiltration in muscle is an important development. As shown in theExample, an exemplary Active Moiety, containing LIVRQNacHFKT (using thesingle amino acid code with Nac meaning NAC as described above), showedsignificant reduction or even avoidance of fat infiltration in musclethat was immobilized for just seven days. This unprecedented observationfor this class of active combinations of amino acid entities nowidentified as Active Moieties opens important new avenues of therapywith an Active Moiety for subjects in need of therapy, as well asmethods of monitoring the effect of administration of an Active Moiety.

Thus, a method of the invention includes administration of an ActiveMoiety to treat subjects at risk of or who have fat infiltration inmuscle, such as but not limited to subjects with chronic back pain (fatinfiltration in paraspinal muscles); HIV patients (fat infiltration inlocomotor muscles); spinal cord injury; stroke; COPD; hepaticencephalopathy; and muscle weakness associated with ageing.

In addition, lowering muscle fat is a means of improving glucosehandling. Given a strong association between insulin resistance andmuscle fat, lowering muscle fat improves glucose sensitivity. Glucosedisposal is a function of muscle and so lowering fat infiltration inmuscle improve a muscle function of sequestering glucose.

Increased infiltration by inter- and intramuscular fat (myosteatosis),in conjunction with reduced muscle mass (myopenia), is recognized as apoor prognostic indicator in patients with cancer (Malietzis et al., AnnSurg. 2016 February; 263(2):320-5). Significantly shortercancer-specific survival and overall survival times were identified forthe myosteatosis versus the nonmyosteatosis group in a study of patientswho underwent curative colorectal cancer surgery (Sueda et al., DisColon Rectum. 2018 March; 61(3):364-374). Myosteatosis, characterized byinter- and intramyocellular fat deposition, is strongly related to pooroverall survival after surgery for periampullary cancer(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hpb.2018.02.378). Thus, in anotherembodiment, reduction of fat infiltration in muscle by administration ofan Active Moiety improves outcomes for treatment of cancer, such assurgery for colorectal cancer and for periampullary cancer.

Myosteatosis is independently associated with end-stage liver disease(ESLD), which is inclusive of, but not limited to, hepaticencephalopathy, variceal bleeding, portal hypertension, ascites,infection risk, sepsis, all-cause hospitalization, and all-cause andliver-related mortality.

Subjects who have increased levels of fat infiltration in muscle may nothave significant increase in BMI, sarcopenia, or other overt conditions.Accordingly, the invention provides a method of treating a patient whosuffers from cirrhosis without sarcopenia by administering an effectiveamount of an Active Moiety that reduces fat infiltration in muscle. Inanother aspect, the invention provides for treating a patient withhepatic encephalopathy by administering an effective amount of an ActiveMoiety that reduces fat infiltration in muscle.

Patients with rotator cuff injury particularly benefit from the methodsof the invention of administering an Active Moiety. Fat infiltration inthe shoulder muscles is associated with poor outcome from rotator cuffinjury (Melis et al., 2009, Orthopaedics & Tramatology: Surgery &Research 95:319-324). Rotator cuff injury includes tendon lesion of thesupraspinatus, infraspinatus, and subscapularis. Fat infiltration canoccur in any of the affected muscles. Fat infiltration above stage 2(intermediate) according to the Goutallier classification (see Melis etal.) carries the risk of irreversible functional loss, and a keyobjective of an intervention during intermediate stages of muscle fattyinfiltration is to prevent such permanent loss. Thus, the presentinvention provides for treating subjects suffering from rotator cuffinjury with an Active Moiety to prevent or delay onset of GoutallierStage 2 fat infiltration, especially prior to surgery to repair theinjury. Alternatively, the present invention provides for treatingsubjects suffering from rotator cuff injury who have Goutallier Stage 2or greater fat infiltration to reduce the degree of fat infiltration,and thus the Goutallier Stage, prior to surgery. In yet anotheralternative, the invention provides for treating a subject sufferingfrom a rotator cuff injury with an Active Moiety in addition to medicaltreatment; medical treatment of rotator cuff injury includes rest,adaptation of daily and occupational movements, rehabilitation, NSAIDS,antalgics, physical therapy, infiltrations, etc. Usually surgery for arotator cuff injury is surgery to repair a torn tendon, and can bearthroscopic surgery or normal surgery.

The invention is especially useful for treating elderly subjects with arotator cuff injury, who are at greater risk for more faster fatinfiltration and progression to the intermediate Goutallier Stage 2 andbeyond to more severe fat infiltration (Stages 3 and 4). Elderlysubjects 50 years old or older benefit; subjects 55 years old or oldercan have even greater benefit; and subjects 60 years old or older evengreater benefit than those who are 55 or older, since at each advancedage group susceptibility to fat infusion increases.

Each of the foregoing treatments of rotator cuff injury may includedetermining the degree of fat infiltration in muscle, e.g., to determinethe Goutallier stage; to show changes in Goutallier stage with therapyby administering an Active Moiety of the invention; to obtain aprognosis of therapy, such as surgery; to establish an appropriate timefor surgery; or to determine that surgery is unnecessary.

Treatment with an Active Moiety Accompanied by Evaluating FatInfiltration in Muscle

In other conditions, administering the Active Moiety to improve, e.g.,enhance, muscle function, e.g., in a patient with a muscle disease ordisorder, includes evaluating fat infiltration in muscle. The presentdisclosure also provides a method for treating one or more (e.g., all)physiological symptoms selected from immobilization, malnutrition,fasting, aging, autophagy, reduced protein synthesis, anabolicresistance, neuromuscular junction integrity, insulin resistance,decreased mitochondrial biogenesis, anaplerosis, or an energy deficit,in each case along with evaluating fat infiltration in muscle. Themethod includes administering to a subject in need thereof an effectiveamount of a composition as set forth hereinabove. Therapeutic treatmentaccording to the invention can be achieved in a subject who has a muscledisease, for example, muscle atrophy, sarcopenia, muscle deterioration,muscle decay, cachexia, drug-induced myopathy, muscular dystrophy, ormyopenia. The muscle disease or disorder can be a dystrophy, such as amyotonic dystrophy. For example, the muscle disease or disorder can beDM1.

Alternatively, the muscle disease or disorder can be a drug-inducedmyopathy, e.g., a statin-induced myopathy; a steroid-induced myopathy;an immunosuppressant-induced myopathy; a chemotherapeutic-inducedmyopathy; or an alcohol-induced myopathy. In each case, administrationof an Active Moiety is accompanied by evaluating fat infiltration inmuscle.

In addition, the subject can have a fracture or other trauma other thanrotator cuff injury.

In some embodiments, the method includes administering to a subject inneed thereof an effective amount of the composition to treat a fooddeficiency, e.g., malnutrition or fasting; aging; autophagy; reducedprotein synthesis; anabolic resistance; junction integrity (e.g.,neuromuscular junction integrity); decreased mitochondrial biogenesis;anaplerosis. In each such foregoing case, treatment is accompanied byevaluating fat infiltration in muscle.

In some embodiments, the subject has not received prior treatment withan Active Moiety (e.g., a naïve subject) accompanied by evaluating fatinfiltration in muscle.

In some embodiments, the subject has muscle weakness, e.g., muscleweakness of one, two, or more (e.g., all) of skeletal muscle, cardiacmuscle, or smooth muscle. In certain embodiments, the subject has muscleweakness in one, two, three, four, five, six, or more (e.g., all) of aneck muscle, a torso muscle, an arm muscle, a shoulder muscle, a handmuscle, a leg muscle, or a foot muscle. Fat infiltration in muscle canbe evaluated daily, every 2-3 days, weekly, every two weeks, every threeweeks, and every four weeks after treatment to determine or evaluate thedegree of fat infiltration in muscle, particularly to determine that thedegree of fat infiltration in muscle is reduced by treatment with anActive Moiety. In the case where administration of an Active Moietyprecedes an elective procedure, such as orthopedic surgery, evaluatingfat infiltration in muscle can be undertaken to determine that the fatfraction in muscle is unchanged from before the surgery, or evenimproved.

A subject who has had orthopedic surgery, e.g., knee surgery, or hipsurgery, elbow surgery, or has worn a cast benefits from administrationof an Active Moiety accompanied by evaluating fat infiltration inmuscle. When surgery is elective, e.g., for knee or hip replacement(also called total knee arthroplasty and total hip arthroplasty,respectively) administration of the Active Moiety, evaluation of fatinfiltration in muscle, or both can be done before surgery, e.g., oneweek before surgery or two weeks before surgery, or can be done aftersurgery, and preferably is done before and after surgery. Inparticularly, evaluation of fat infiltration in muscle, specificallymuscle most impacted by the surgery or treated by the surgery, can bedone daily, every 2-3 days, weekly, every two weeks, every three weeks,and every four weeks after surgery to determine or evaluate the degreeof fat infiltration in muscle, particularly to determine that the degreeof fat infiltration in muscle is reduced by treatment with an ActiveMoiety, and more particularly to determine that the fat fraction inmuscle is unchanged from before the surgery, or even improved.

In some embodiments, the subject has a neuromuscular disorder, e.g.,myasthenia gravis or Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome.

In some embodiments, the subject has muscular dystrophy, e.g., Duchennemuscular dystrophy, Becker muscular dystrophy, facioscapulohumeralmuscular dystrophy, or myotonic dystrophy. In some embodiments, thesubject has an inflammatory myopathy, e.g., polymyositis ordermatomyositis.

In some embodiments, the subject has one, two, or more (e.g., all) oflow sodium levels (e.g., hyponatremia), low potassium levels (e.g.,hypokalemia), or a calcium deficiency or relatively high calcium levels(e.g., hypercalcemia).

In some embodiments, the subject has muscle weakness associated withnerve damage, e.g., neuralgia or peripheral neuropathy. In someembodiments, the subject has a bone weakness disease, e.g.,osteomalacia, osteogenesis imperfecta, rickets, or Hypophosphatasia.

In some embodiments, the subject has experienced a stroke or a transientischemic attack. In some embodiments, the subject has an autoimmunedisease, e.g., Graves' disease.

In some embodiments, the subject has hypothyroidism. In someembodiments, the subject has amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

In some embodiments, administering the composition results in activationof muscle protein synthesis in the subject. In some embodiments, thecomposition also reduces muscle protein wasting.

In some embodiments, the composition results in an improvement in thedegree of fat infiltration in muscle associated with one or both ofimmobilization or muscle disuse following injury in a subject. In someembodiments, the subject has had a surgery, e.g., rotator cuff surgery,knee surgery, or hip surgery, or has worn a cast, prior toadministration of the composition. In some embodiments, the subject hashad a hip fracture-related myopenia. In some embodiments, the subjecthas had a joint replacement. In some embodiments, the subject has had aninjury repair surgery.

In some embodiments, the subject has ventilator-induced diaphragmaticdystrophy or ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction. In someembodiments, the subject has had one or both of ICU-acquired orburns-related myopathies.

In some embodiments, the subject has disease-related cachexia, e.g., adisease-related cachexia selected from chronic obstructive pulmonarydisease (COPD), congestive heart failure (CHF), chronic kidney disease(CKD), and cancer.

In some embodiments, method of the invention further includesadministration of a second agent. Such a second agent may excludeproteins, whether intact or in hydrolyzed form, such as whey, casein,lactalbumin, etc.

The present disclosure also provides a method for reducing muscleatrophy comprising administering to a subject in need thereof aneffective amount of a composition described herein. In each such caseeffectiveness of therapy includes reduction of fat infiltration inmuscle, and may include determining the degree of fat infiltration inmuscle.

The present disclosure also provides a composition described herein foruse as a medicament for reducing fat infiltration in muscle.

The present disclosure provides a composition described herein for useas a medicament for reducing fat infiltration in muscle, which may be inconjunction with treating one or more symptoms selected from the groupconsisting of immobilization, injury, surgery, malnutrition, fasting,aging, autophagy, reduced protein synthesis, anabolic resistance,neuromuscular junction integrity, insulin resistance, decreasedmitochondrial biogenesis, and anaplerosis.

Dosage Regimens

The composition can be administered to a human subject according to adosage regimen described herein.

Doses can be administered, e.g., twice daily, three times daily, fourtimes daily, five times daily, six times daily, seven times daily, ormore. The composition can be administered for at least 2 days, 3 days, 4days, 5 days, 6 days, 7 days, or 2 weeks. Depending on the conditionbeing treated, the composition can be administered for at least 10weeks, 11 weeks, 12 weeks, 13 weeks, 14 weeks, 15 weeks, 16 weeks, 17weeks, 18 weeks, 19 weeks, 20 weeks, or longer. In some embodiments, thecomposition can be administered chronically, e.g., more than 30 days,e.g., 31 days, 40 days, 50 days, 60 days, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months,one year, two years, or three years). If the condition of fatinfiltration in muscle is chronic and unremitting, the inventioncontemplates administering an Active Moiety indefinitely, e.g., for thelife of the subject.

The Active Moiety can be administered at a dose of about 4 g and about80 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three timesper day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day(e.g., three times per day). In some embodiments, the composition isadministered at a dose of about 5 g to about 15 g, about 10 g to about20 g, about 20 g to about 40 g, or about 30 g to about 50 g total aminoacids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, fourtimes per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., threetimes per day).

The composition can be administered every 2 hours, every 3 hours, every4 hours, every 5 hours, every 6 hours, every 7 hours, every 8 hours,every 9 hours, or every 10 hours to enhance muscle function in a subject(e.g., the subject has or is identified as having decreased musclefunction due to aging, injury, atrophy, infection, or disease).

In some embodiments, the composition is administered prior to a meal(e.g., one, two, or more (e.g., all) of breakfast, lunch, or dinner). Insome embodiments, the composition is administered concurrent with a meal(e.g., one, two, or more (e.g., all) of breakfast, lunch, or dinner). Insome embodiments, the composition is administered following a meal(e.g., one, two, or more (e.g., all) of breakfast, lunch, or dinner).

Production of Active Moiety and Pharmaceutical Compositions

Amino acids used to make the compositions may be agglomerated, and/orinstantized to aid in dispersal and/or solubilization.

The amino acid compositions of the present disclosure may be made usingamino acids and amino acid derivatives from the following sources, orother sources may used: e.g., FUSI-BCAA™ Instantized Blend (L-Leucine,L-Isoleucine and L-Valine in 2:1:1 weight ratio), FUSIL™ InstantizedL-Leucine, L-Arginine HCl, L-Glutamine and other amino acids may beobtained from Ajinomoto Co., Inc; N-acetylcysteine may be obtained fromSpectrum Chemical.

To produce the amino acid compositions of the instant disclosure, thefollowing general steps may be used: the starting materials (individualamino acids and excipients) may be blended in a blending unit, followedby verification of blend uniformity and amino acid content, and fillingof the blended powder into stick packs or other unit dosage form. Thecontent of stick packs or other unit dosage forms may be dispersed inwater at time of use for oral administration.

Pharmaceutical compositions of the present disclosure may be in a formsuitable for oral use (for example aqueous or oily suspensions,emulsions, dispersible powders or granules, syrups or elixirs), forparental administration (for example as a sterile aqueous or oilysolution for intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular dosing or as asuppository for rectal dosing) or for enteral administration (forexample via tube feeding). Generally, however, pharmaceuticalcompositions of the invention will be for oral administration.

Food supplement and medical nutrition compositions of the invention willbe in a form suitable for oral administration.

When combining raw materials, e.g., pharmaceutical grade amino acidentities and/or excipients, into a composition, contaminants may bepresent in the composition. A composition meets a standard for level ofcontamination when the composition does not substantially comprise(e.g., comprises less than 10, 5, 1, 0.1, 0.01, or 0.001% (w/w on a dryweight basis)) a contaminant. In some embodiments, a compositiondescribed in a method herein does not comprise a contaminant.Contaminants include any substance that is not deliberately present inthe composition (for example, pharmaceutical grade amino acid entitiesand excipients, e.g., oral administration components, may bedeliberately present) or any substance that has a negative effect on aproduct quality parameter of the composition (e.g., side effects in asubject, decreased potency, decreased stability/shelf life,discoloration, odor, bad taste, bad texture/mouthfeel, or increasedsegregation of components of the composition). In some embodiments,contaminants include microbes, endotoxins, metals, or a combinationthereof. In some embodiments, the level of contamination, e.g., bymetals, lecithin, choline, endotoxin, microbes, or other contaminants(e.g., contaminants from raw materials) of each portion of a compositionis below the level permitted in food.

Excipients

The amino acid compositions of the present disclosure may be compoundedor formulated with one or more excipients. Non-limiting examples ofsuitable excipients include a tastant, a flavorant, a buffering agent, apreservative, a stabilizer, a binder, a compaction agent, a lubricant, adispersion enhancer, a disintegration agent, a flavoring agent, asweetener, and a coloring agent.

In some embodiments, the excipient comprises a buffering agent.Non-limiting examples of suitable buffering agents include citric acid,sodium citrate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, calciumcarbonate, and calcium bicarbonate.

In some embodiments, the excipient comprises a preservative.Non-limiting examples of suitable preservatives include antioxidants,such as alpha-tocopherol and ascorbate, and antimicrobials, such asparabens, chlorobutanol, and phenol.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a binder as an excipient.Non-limiting examples of suitable binders include starches,pregelatinized starches, gelatin, polyvinylpyrolidone, cellulose,methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, ethylcellulose,polyacrylamides, polyvinyloxoazolidone, polyvinylalcohols, C12-C18 fattyacid alcohol, polyethylene glycol, polyols, saccharides,oligosaccharides, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a lubricant as anexcipient. Non-limiting examples of suitable lubricants includemagnesium stearate, calcium stearate, zinc stearate, hydrogenatedvegetable oils, sterotex, polyoxyethylene monostearate, talc,polyethyleneglycol, sodium benzoate, sodium lauryl sulfate, magnesiumlauryl sulfate, and light mineral oil.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a dispersion enhancer asan excipient. Non-limiting examples of suitable dispersants includestarch, alginic acid, polyvinylpyrrolidones, guar gum, kaolin, xanthangum, bentonite, purified wood cellulose, sodium starch glycolate,isoamorphous silicate, and microcrystalline cellulose as high HLBemulsifier surfactants.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a disintegrant as anexcipient. In some embodiments, the disintegrant is a non-effervescentdisintegrant. Non-limiting examples of suitable non-effervescentdisintegrants include starches such as corn starch, potato starch,pregelatinized and modified starches thereof, sweeteners, clays, such asbentonite, micro-crystalline cellulose, alginates, sodium starchglycolate, gums such as agar, guar, locust bean, karaya, pecitin, andtragacanth. In some embodiments, the disintegrant is an effervescentdisintegrant. Non-limiting examples of suitable effervescentdisintegrants include sodium bicarbonate in combination with citricacid, and sodium bicarbonate in combination with tartaric acid.

In some embodiments, the excipient comprises a flavoring agent.Flavoring agents can be chosen from synthetic flavor oils and flavoringaromatics; natural oils; extracts from plants, leaves, flowers, andfruits; and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the flavoringagent is selected from cinnamon oils; oil of wintergreen; peppermintoils; clover oil; hay oil; anise oil; eucalyptus; vanilla; citrus oilsuch as lemon oil, orange oil, grape and grapefruit oil; and fruitessences including apple, peach, pear, strawberry, raspberry, cherry,plum, pineapple, and apricot.

In some embodiments, the excipient comprises a sweetener. Non-limitingexamples of suitable sweeteners include glucose (corn syrup), dextrose,invert sugar, fructose, and mixtures thereof (when not used as acarrier); saccharin and its various salts such as the sodium salt;dipeptide sweeteners such as aspartame; dihydrochalcone compounds,glycyrrhizin; Stevia Rebaudiana (Stevioside); chloro derivatives ofsucrose such as sucralose; and sugar alcohols such as sorbitol,mannitol, sylitol, and the like. Also contemplated are hydrogenatedstarch hydrolysates and the synthetic sweetener3,6-dihydro-6-methyl-1,2,3-oxathiazin-4-one-2,2-dioxide, particularlythe potassium salt (acesulfame-K), and sodium and calcium salts thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a coloring agent.Non-limiting examples of suitable color agents include food, drug andcosmetic colors (FD&C), drug and cosmetic colors (D&C), and externaldrug and cosmetic colors (Ext. D&C). The coloring agents can be used asdyes or their corresponding lakes.

Particular excipients may include one or more of: citric acid, lecithin,(e.g. Alcolec F100), sweeteners (e.g. sucralose, sucralose micronizedNF, acesulfame potassium (e.g. Ace-K)), a dispersion enhancer (e.g.xanthan gum (e.g. Ticaxan Rapid-3)), flavorings (e.g. vanilla custard#4306, Nat Orange WONF #1326, lime 865.0032U, and lemon 862.2169U), abitterness masking agent (e.g. 936.2160U), and natural or artificialcolorings (e.g. FD&C Yellow 6). Table 5 in the Example illustrates aformulation with such excipients.

Dietary Compositions

The Active Moiety including amino acid entities can be formulated andused as a dietary composition, e.g., chosen from a medical food, afunctional food, or a supplement. In such an embodiment, the rawmaterials and final product should meet the standards of a food product.Such uses include improving health of a subject having or identified assuffering from infiltration of fat in muscle due to aging, injury,atrophy, infection, or disease. In some embodiments, the subject has oris identified as having muscle deterioration, muscle decay, muscleatrophy, cachexia, sarcopenia, steroid myopathy, or muscular dystrophy.In some embodiments, the subject has one or both of type 2 diabetes or arelatively high BMI.

In some embodiments, administration of the dietary composition resultsin an improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms in the subject,e.g., one or more metabolic symptoms is selected from the following:increased free fatty acid and lipid metabolism, improved mitochondrialfunction, white adipose tissue (WAT) browning, decreased reactive oxygenspecies (ROS), increased levels of glutathione (GSH), decreased hepaticinflammation, decreased hepatocyte ballooning, improved gut barrierfunction, increased insulin secretion, or glucose tolerance. In certainembodiments, administration of the composition results in an improvementin one or more metabolic symptoms after a treatment period of 24 hours.

Biomarkers

Any of the methods disclosed herein can include evaluating or monitoringthe effectiveness of administering a composition described herein to asubject by determining the degree of infiltration of fat in muscle inthe subject, e.g., with CT or MRI. The subject may be in need of musclefunction enhancement (e.g., a subject having muscle deterioration,muscle decay, muscle atrophy, cachexia, sarcopenia, drug-inducedmyopathy, muscular dystrophy, or myopenia). The effectiveness to thecomposition in treating a subject can further comprise a measure of thelevels of one or more (e.g., all) of the following:

-   -   a) myostatin;    -   b) myoglobin;    -   c) Cortisol-AM;    -   d) C-reactive protein;    -   e) insulin;    -   f) cytokines (e.g., one or more (e.g., all) of IL-1A RBM,        IL-1RA, IL-1 RI, IL-1 RII, IL-12, IL-18, or MCP-1);    -   g) GDF-11;    -   h) P3NP;    -   i) IGF-1;    -   j) IGFBP1;    -   k) IGFBP3;    -   l) FGF21;    -   m) DHEAS;    -   n) mTORC1;    -   o) Gcn2; or    -   p) AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK).

In some embodiments of any of the methods disclosed herein, the measureof one or more of a)-p) is obtained from a sample acquired from thesubject.

In some embodiments, the subject is evaluated prior to receiving,during, or after receiving, the composition.

In some embodiments, administration of the composition to the subjectresults in a decrease in levels of one or more (e.g., all) of myoglobin,myostatin, GDF-11, cortisol-AM, C-reactive protein, insulin, orcytokines (e.g., one or more (e.g., all) of IL-1A RBM, IL-1RA, IL-1 RI,IL-1 RII, IL-12, IL-18, or MCP-1) in the subject (Table 4). In someembodiments, administration of the composition to the subject results inan increase in levels of one or more (e.g., all) of P3NP, IGF-1, IGFBP1,IGFBP3, FGF-21, DHEAS, or mTORC1 in the subject (Table 4).

TABLE 4 Additional biomarkers to determine effect of the composition onmuscle biology. Expected Change in Response to Additional informationregarding biomarker change on Biomarker Category Composition musclesynthesis and/or breakdown Myoglobin Muscle Down Decrease suggests areduction in muscle breakdown and biology autophagy Myostatin, MuscleDown Myostatin act to inhibit muscle synthesis - decrease in levelsGDF-11 biology indicate increase anabolism Change in GDF-11 levels tofurther inform changes to muscle biology P3NP Muscle Up P3NP is releasedduring collagen synthesis in muscle biology Increased circulating P3NPindicates muscle growth, muscle repair and fibrosis Cortisol-AMEndocrine Down Endocrine molecules involved in regulating proteinsynthesis C-reactive protein Endocrine Down as stimulators/potentiatorsor inhibitors IGF-1, IGFBP1, Endocrine Up Increase in potentiator levelsand decrease in inhibitor levels IGFBP3, FGF21, are supportive of netanabolism DHEAS Insulin Endocrine Down Decrease indicates moderation ininsulin resistance, and (glucose increased glucose handling and anabolicsensitivity tolerance) IL1ARBM, Inflammation Down Increased musclewasting is associated with a strong IL1RA, IL1RI, inflammatory responseIL1RII, IL-12, Reduced levels of these inflammation biomarkers indicateIL-18, MCP-1, reduction in inflammation cytokines Overall profile ofthese biomarker can further provide dynamic assessment on interleukinresponse to the composition

EXAMPLE

The Example below is set forth to aid in the understanding of theinvention, but is not intended to, and should not be construed to, limitits scope in any way.

Example 1. Treatment of Immobilization in Subjects with an Amino AcidComposition not Only Reduces Loss of Muscle Mass and Function, butSurprisingly Reduces Fat Infiltration

The study described herein features the administration of a compositionincluding amino acids to healthy subjects undergoing unilateral kneeimmobilization. The goal of this study was to determine the impact of anamino acid composition on muscle atrophy after 7 days of single legimmobilization and 14 days of recovery post-immobilization. Thecomposition included about 1 g of L-leucine, about 0.5 g ofL-isoleucine, about 0.5 g of L-valine, about 1.5 g of L-arginine (or1.81 g of L-arginine HCl), about 1.33 g of L-glutamine, about 0.15 g ofN-acetylcysteine, about 0.08 g of L-histidine, about 0.35 g of L-lysine,about 0.08 g of L-phenylalanine, and about 0.17 g of L-threonine perstick packet for administration in four stick packs three times per day(e.g., a total of about 68 or 72 g per day, or about 23 g or 24 g threetimes per day). The composition also included excipients as shown inTable 5.

TABLE 5 Ingredient contents in each stick pack. INGREDIENT GRADEFUNCTION GRAMS SOURCE; COMMENT Amino Acids USP Active Pharmaceutical 6Various sources; Non- Ingredient (API) instantized form (MFG scale)Citric Acid USP pH, Flavor 0.67 Spectrum Chems; f(volume) ≤ 1.0% w/vAcesulfame K NF Sweetness (rapid onset) 0.05 Spectrum Chems; Target 1Sweetener Sucralose NF Sweetness (slow onset) 0.03 Spectrum Chems; WHOADI ≤ 15 mg/kg Lecithin (Alecolec FCC Wetting Agent 0.83 AmericanLecithin F100) Company Xanthan Gum FCC Stabilizer/Thickener 0.24 TICGums; f(volume) ≤ 0.5% w/v Vanilla Custard GRAS Taste/Aroma 0.06 DavidMichael; Mask (Art) sulfur Orange (Natural and GRAS 1° flavor 0.36 DavidMichael; Citrus WONF) profile matches low pH Lime (Natural and GRAS 2°flavor 0.05 FONA; Single flavor WONF) supplier Lemon (Natural and GRAS2° flavor 0.05 FONA; Single flavor artificial) supplier Taste ModifierGRAS Bitterness masking 0.12 FONA; Useful at low volume FD&C Yellow No.6 USP Color 0.009 Sensient; Match flavor profile

In the study, subjects received the amino acid composition three timesdaily for 28 days. Amino acids were provided in powder form to bedissolved in 8 oz. of water. Participants underwent single-legimmobilization for 7 days (days 8-15) during the 28-day study period. Animmobilization device was used for 7 days of single-leg immobilizationof the dominant knee (based on maximal isometric leg strength) with aknee brace worn in a fixed flexion position at 140° (e.g., a Bregbrace).

Control subjects received placebo three times daily for 28 days. Placeboconsisted of an amount of maltodextrin (NF grade) equivalent in caloriccontent to the amount of amino acids administered, with the sameexcipients, dissolved in 8 oz. of water.

The primary outcome measure of this study was safety and tolerability.In addition, muscle disuse atrophy, in particular, the impact of theamino acid formulation on muscle atrophy after 7 days of single legimmobilization was studied. The secondary outcome measures includedmuscle function based on knee strength, muscle cross-section area andvolume, muscle fiber quality, and lean muscle mass. The percentagechange in lean muscle mass in the subjects was determined usingdual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). The percentage change inmaximum torque as measured using a BioDex machine (measured inNewton-meters) and percentage change in the time to maximum torque(measured in seconds) were also assessed. Muscle biopsies were performedto determine muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA). Muscle size wasassessed via MRI. Muscle health was assessed by electrical impedancemyography (EIM) measurements. Assessments were performed at baseline(day 1), pre-immobilization (day 8), post-immobilization (day 15), andrecovery (day 28).

More specifically, MRIs were performed at Days 1, 8, 15, and 28. Axial(transverse) images were obtained from both thighs from the distal endof the femur to the greater trochanter using GE high fidelity 3T magnet.A fast-recovery, fast spin echo pulse sequence was used, along withIDEAL (iterative decomposition of water and fat with echo asymmetry andleast-squares estimation) post-processing to obtain water-only,fat-only, in-phase and out-of-phase images of the thighs. The followingparameters were used: TR=2000 msec, TE=30 msec, refocusing flipangle=111 degrees, echo train length=6, ASSET (parallel imagingfactor)=2, field of view=42×21 cm, acquisition matrix=512×256, 3-mmslice thickness, 0-mm slice gap. A total of approximately 160 sliceswere acquired, but varied depending on length of the thigh. Theacquisition was done in two sections, a lower stage, and an upper stage.Total scan time for both stages was approximately 11 minutes. The scanswere uploaded onto Analyze Pro software. The 50% region between thegreater trochanter of the hip and lateral epicondyle of the knee wereused for analysis. The segmentation features of the software were usedto differentiate between the bone, fat, right muscle, right quadriceps,left muscle and left quadriceps. Then every third slice in the 50%region was manually traced for the quadriceps muscles of both legs. Thehighest number from these measurements was taken as the peak quadricepscross-sectional area. The software was then able to take every thirdslice that was manually measured and extrapolate that data for everyslice in the 50% region to get an estimate of quadriceps volume. CSA wasexpressed in mm2 and muscle volume in mm3. Protocol adapted from Reederet al., 2005.

To obtain independent verification of the imaging data, DIXON sequencesof the upper and lower thighs were securely transferred to the ImageAnalysis Group (IAG, London, UK) for whole muscle volume analysis and anadditional analysis to measure intramuscular fat fraction. Given thewater and fat images it is possible to generate a Fat Fraction (FF)image as:

FF=F/(W+F), where F=fat, and W=water.

IAG calculated these images and added them to the individual DICOMstudies. As the base images can give spurious regions of high fatfraction due to noise, a thresholding filter was used to reduce thesesmall peripheral artefacts and minimize noise in regions where both thefat and water signals are small. Segmentations were carried out on theupper thigh FF images. The segmentation was from the middle of the thightowards the pelvis for 20 slices. The segmentation was carried outmanually from each sequence. Once segmented, the slice ROIs were groupedto form a volume ROI and the statistics automatically calculated.

Key criteria for selecting subjects included the following: 1) generallyhealthy, non-smoking; 2) willing and able to provide informed consent;3) men age 20-45 years; and 4) BMI between 25 and 35 kg/m². ExclusionCriteria included the following: 1) smokers; 2) subject has anyconcurrent medical, orthopedic, or psychiatric condition that, in theopinion of the investigator, would compromise his/her ability to complywith the study requirements; 3) history of cancer within the last 5years, except basal cell carcinoma, non-squamous skin carcinoma,prostate cancer, or carcinoma in situ with no significant progressionover the past 2 years; 4) significant orthopedic, cardiovascular,pulmonary, renal, liver, infectious disease, immune disorder (requiringongoing medical care), or metabolic/endocrine disorder (e.g., diabetes,high cholesterol, elevated fasting blood sugar) or other disease thatwould preclude oral protein supplement ingestion and/or assessment ofsafety and study objectives; 5) any cachexia-related condition (e.g.,relating to cancer, tuberculosis, or human immunodeficiency virusinfection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome) or any genetic musclediseases or disorders; 6) current illnesses that could interfere withthe study (e.g. prolonged severe diarrhea, regurgitation, or difficultyswallowing); 7) subject participated in a study of an investigationalproduct less than 60 days or 5 half-lives of the investigationalproduct, whichever is longer, before enrollment in this study; 8)hypersensitivity to any of the components of the test product; 9)excessive alcohol consumption (>21 units/week); 10) known sensitivity orallergy to amino acids or any ingredient in the test formulations; 11)prior gastrointestinal bypass surgery (e.g., lapband surgery), irritablebowel disease, or irritable bowel syndrome; 12) history of bleedingdiathesis, platelet or coagulation disorders, orantiplatelet/anticoagulation therapy (up to 81 mg of baby aspirin perday taken as a prophylactic is permitted); 13) personal or familyhistory of clotting disorder or deep vein thrombosis; 14) concomitantuse of corticosteroids, testosterone replacement therapy (ingestion,injection, or transdermal), any anabolic steroid, creatine, whey proteinsupplements, casein, or branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) within 45days prior to screening; 15) contraindications to an MRI scan (e.g.subjects with non-removable ferromagnetic implants, pacemakers, aneurysmclips or other foreign bodies, or subjects with claustrophobic symptomsthat would contraindicate an MRI scan); 16) hemoglobin less than 11.5mg/dl at screening; or 17) platelets less than 150,000/uL (150×109/L) atscreening.

The findings from this study suggest that the decline in lean leg massas a result of unilateral limb immobilization (i.e. disuse atrophy),including reduction in fat infiltration into the muscle, was attenuatedin those that received the LIVRQNACHKFT amino acid combination, ascompared to those that received placebo. These results in subjectsundergoing a unilateral limb immobilization suggest that the amino acidcombination attenuated this decline in lean mass of the immobilized leg,while preserving muscle strength. The immobilized leg in the placeboadministered groups did not recover their lean mass to thepost-immobilized or the pre-immobilized state during the two weekrecovery period. By contrast, administration of the amino acidcombination maintained and/or improved the lean leg mass within this twoweek recovery period to that of the post and pre-immobilization. Thedecline in muscle strength seen after a week of unilateral limbimmobilization in the placebo group was also attenuated by the aminoacid combination. The non-immobilized leg in either the Placebo or theLIVRQNACHKFT amino acid administered group did not appear to lose theirlean leg mass nor their muscle strength to the same extent as thecorresponding immobilized leg during the knee brace period, as expectedof an appropriate control.

CSA of specific fibers within the vastus lateralis was preserved duringimmobilization with LIVRQNACHKFT vs. Pbo administration. One week ofimmobilization led to a 2.2% (±4.0) decrease in fiber CSA (FIG. 1).Consistent with the existing literature, in the Pbo group, muscle disusetended to result in a preferential loss of Type II vs. Type I fibers(4.5±4.8% loss for Type II vs. no change for Type I). By contrast,LIVRQNACHKFT administration preserved the cross-sectional area of bothfiber types during immobilization. Quantification of CSA is shown inFIG. 1, with the following changes observed between LIVRQNACHKFT andPbo: increase of 4.1-fold for total fibers; 1.7-fold for Type II fibers;12-fold for Type I fibers (P=0.08). Of note, LIVRQNACHKFT had aparticularly pronounced effect on the slow twitch type I fibers, in notonly preserving them, but tended to induce their growth (13.3±7.4%increase in Type I fiber CSA from Day 8 to Day 15).

The unprecedented observation of LIVRQNACHKFT's effect on the oxidative,slow twitch Type I fibers could suggest an impact on insulinsensitization, and the latter has been closely associated with musclefat infiltration (Albu et al. 2005). Consistent with this unprecentedeffect on Type I muscle fibers, LIVRQNACHKFT administrationsignificantly attenuated muscle fat infiltration during limbimmobilization (FIGS. 2A and 2B). Representative images depicting fatfraction (FF) changes show that in a subject administered Pbo (FIG. 2A),the non-immobilized leg had no change in FF, while the immobilized leghad increased FF and decreased muscle mass between Day 8 and 15. Bycontrast, in a subject administered LIVRQNACHKFT (FIG. 2A), theimmobilized leg had lower fat fraction, and a higher muscle contentfollowing immobilization, illustrating LIVRQNACHKFT anti-atrophiceffects. These FF changes were quantified across all subjects andresults are plotted in FIG. 2B. Percent change in quadriceps muscle fatfraction on Day 15 vs. Day 8 was +12.8±6.1% in Pbo vs. −0.41±3.07% inLIVRQNACHKFT (P=0.018) in the immobilized leg. As expected, thenon-immobilized leg had significantly less to no muscle fatinfiltration: 1.76±2.6% (Pbo) vs. −2.05±2.4% (LIVRQNACHKFT), with nostatistical difference between the groups (P=0.479, FIG. 2B).

Consistent with the literature (Tarulli et al. 2009), we observeddecreases in phase, maximum reactance, and reactance slope (theseparameters are considered to be reflective of muscle health, Rutkove2009) during limb immobilization (i.e. from Day 8 to 15) in the Pbogroup (FIG. 3).

By contrast, LIVRQNACHKFT administration resulted in the attenuation, ifnot a numerical increase in these parameters during immobilization (withrelative differences versus Pbo ranging from 115% to 155%). During therecovery phase, these parameters returned to pre-immobilization levelsin both groups (Day 28 vs. Day 8), but these parameters tended to behigher in the LIVRQNACHKFT group compared to Pbo, with relativedifferences of 56%, 60%, and 70% for phase, max reactance, and reactanceslope, respectively.

While the invention has been particularly shown and described withreference to a preferred embodiment and various alternate embodiments,it will be understood by persons skilled in the relevant art thatvarious changes in form and details can be made therein withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the invention.

All references, issued patents and patent applications cited within thebody of the instant specification are hereby incorporated by referencein their entirety, for all purposes.

1-30. (canceled)
 31. A method for treating or reducing muscle atrophy,comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of compositioncomprising: a) a leucine (L)-amino acid entity chosen from L-leucine,oxo-leucine, β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB), isovaleryl-CoA, orN-acetyl-leucine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid; b)an arginine (R)-amino acid entity chosen from L-arginine,argininosuccinate, agmatine, creatine, or N-acetyl-arginine; or a saltthereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof, or acombination of any of the aforesaid; c) a glutamine (Q)-amino acidentity chosen from L-glutamine, carbamoyl-P, or N-acetyl-glutamine; or asalt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof,or a combination of any of the aforesaid; d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or asalt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any ofthe aforesaid; and e) an essential amino acid (EAA)-entity chosen fromone, two, three, or four of: i) a histidine (H)-amino acid-entity chosenfrom L-histidine, histidinol, histidinal, ribose-5-phosphate, carnosine,histamine, urocanate, or N-acetyl-histidine; or a salt thereof, adipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof, or acombination of any of the aforesaid; ii) a lysine (K)-amino acid-entitychosen from L-lysine, diaminopimelate, trimethyllysine, saccharopine, orN-acetyl-lysine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid;iii) a phenylalanine (F)-amino acid-entity chosen from L-phenylalanine,phenylpyruvate, or N-acetyl-phenylalanine; or a salt thereof, adipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof, or acombination of any of the aforesaid; or iv) a threonine (T)-aminoacid-entity chosen from L-threonine, oxo-butyrate, orN-acetyl-threonine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid;wherein at least one of the leucine amino acid entity, the arginineamino acid, the glutamine amino acid entity, or one, two, three, or allof the EAA amino acid entities is a free amino acid, wherein at least 50wt. % of the total dry wt. of the composition is one or more amino acidentities in free form, and wherein the total wt. % of (a)-(e) is greaterthan the total wt. % of other amino acid entities in the composition.32. A method of activating muscle protein synthesis, reducing muscleprotein wasting, or both, comprising administering to a subject aneffective amount of composition comprising: a) a leucine (L)-amino acidentity chosen from L-leucine, oxo-leucine, β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate(HMB), isovaleryl-CoA, or N-acetyl-leucine; or a salt thereof, adipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof, or acombination of any of the aforesaid; b) an arginine (R)-amino acidentity chosen from L-arginine, argininosuccinate, agmatine, creatine, orN-acetyl-arginine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid; c)a glutamine (Q)-amino acid entity chosen from L-glutamine, carbamoyl-P,or N-acetyl-glutamine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid; d)N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof,or a combination of any of the aforesaid; and e) an essential amino acid(EAA)-entity chosen from one, two, three, or four of: i) a histidine(H)-amino acid-entity chosen from L-histidine, histidinol, histidinal,ribose-5-phosphate, carnosine, histamine, urocanate, orN-acetyl-histidine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid;ii) a lysine (K)-amino acid-entity chosen from L-lysine,diaminopimelate, trimethyllysine, saccharopine, or N-acetyl-lysine; or asalt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof,or a combination of any of the aforesaid; iii) a phenylalanine (F)-aminoacid-entity chosen from L-phenylalanine, phenylpyruvate, orN-acetyl-phenylalanine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof,a tripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid;or iv) a threonine (T)-amino acid-entity chosen from L-threonine,oxo-butyrate, or N-acetyl-threonine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide orsalt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any ofthe aforesaid; wherein at least one of the leucine amino acid entity,the arginine amino acid, the glutamine amino acid entity, or one, two,three, or all of the EAA amino acid entities is a free amino acid,wherein at least 50 wt. % of the total dry wt. of the composition is oneor more amino acid entities in free form, and wherein the total wt. % of(a)-(e) is greater than the total wt. % of other amino acid entities inthe composition.
 33. A method for improving muscle function, comprisingadministering to a subject an effective amount of a compositioncomprising: a) a leucine (L)-amino acid entity chosen from L-leucine,oxo-leucine, β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB), isovaleryl-CoA, orN-acetyl-leucine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid; b)an arginine (R)-amino acid entity chosen from L-arginine,argininosuccinate, agmatine, creatine, or N-acetyl-arginine; or a saltthereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof, or acombination of any of the aforesaid; c) a glutamine (Q)-amino acidentity chosen from L-glutamine, carbamoyl-P, or N-acetyl-glutamine; or asalt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof,or a combination of any of the aforesaid; d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or asalt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any ofthe aforesaid; and e) an essential amino acid (EAA)-entity chosen fromone, two, three, or four of: i) a histidine (H)-amino acid-entity chosenfrom L-histidine, histidinol, histidinal, ribose-5-phosphate, carnosine,histamine, urocanate, or N-acetyl-histidine; or a salt thereof, adipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof, or acombination of any of the aforesaid; ii) a lysine (K)-amino acid-entitychosen from L-lysine, diaminopimelate, trimethyllysine, saccharopine, orN-acetyl-lysine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid;iii) a phenylalanine (F)-amino acid-entity chosen from L-phenylalanine,phenylpyruvate, or N-acetyl-phenylalanine; or a salt thereof, adipeptide or salt thereof, a tripeptide or salt thereof, or acombination of any of the aforesaid; or iv) a threonine (T)-aminoacid-entity chosen from L-threonine, oxo-butyrate, orN-acetyl-threonine; or a salt thereof, a dipeptide or salt thereof, atripeptide or salt thereof, or a combination of any of the aforesaid;wherein at least one of the leucine amino acid entity, the arginineamino acid, the glutamine amino acid entity, or one, two, three, or allof the EAA amino acid entities is a free amino acid, wherein at least 50wt. % of the total dry wt. of the composition is one or more amino acidentities in free form, and wherein the total wt. % of (a)-(e) is greaterthan the total wt. % of other amino acid entities in the composition.34. The method of claim 31, wherein the subject is experiencing one ormore of sarcopenia, muscle deterioration, muscle decay, cachexia,drug-induced myopathy, muscular dystrophy, or myopenia.
 35. The methodof claim 31, wherein the subject is experiencing a food deficiencyselected from one or more of malnutrition, fasting; aging; autophagy;reduced protein synthesis; anabolic resistance; junction integrity;decreased mitochondrial biogenesis; and anaplerosis.
 36. The method ofclaim 31, wherein the composition is administered once daily, twicedaily, or three times daily.
 37. The method of claim 31, wherein thesubject has a rotator cuff injury.
 38. The method of claim 31, whereinthe subject has a knee injury.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein thecomposition is administered to the subject before or after a total kneearthroplasty.
 40. The method of claim 31, wherein the subject has a hipinjury.
 41. The method of claim 40, wherein the composition isadministered to the subject before or after a total hip arthroplasty.42. The method of claim 31, wherein the subject is an elderly subject.43. The method of claim 31, wherein the subject has chronic back pain;HIV; spinal cord injury; stroke; COPD; end-stage liver disease (ESLD),hepatic encephalopathy, variceal bleeding, portal hypertension, ascites,infection risk, sepsis, all-cause hospitalization, all-cause andliver-related mortality; or muscle weakness associated with aging. 44.The method of claim 31, wherein the subject has diabetes or metabolicdisease.
 45. The method of claim 31, wherein the subject has cancer. 46.The method of claim 45, wherein the cancer is colorectal cancer orperiampullary cancer.
 47. The method of claim 31, wherein administrationof the composition to the subject results in a decrease in levels of oneor more (e.g., all) of myoglobin, myostatin, GDF-11, cortisol-AM,C-reactive protein, insulin, or cytokines (e.g., one or more (e.g., all)of IL-1A RBM, IL-1RA, IL-1 RI, IL-1 RII, IL-12, IL-18, or MCP-1) in thesubject.
 48. The method of claim 31, wherein administration of thecomposition to the subject results in an increase in levels of one ormore (e.g., all) of P3NP, IGF-1, IGFBP1, IGFBP3, FGF-21, DHEAS, ormTORC1 in the subject.
 49. The method of claim 31, wherein the subjectis experiencing muscle weakness of one, two, or more (e.g., all) ofskeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, or smooth muscle.
 50. The method ofclaim 31, wherein one, two, three, or more of methionine (M), tryptophan(W), valine (V), or cysteine (C) is absent from the composition, or ifpresent, is present at less than 1 wt. %, 0.5 wt. %, or 0.1 wt. %. 51.The method of claim 31, wherein the composition further comprises one orboth of an isoleucine (I)-amino acid entity, chosen from L-isoleucine ora salt thereof, or a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or saltthereof, comprising L-isoleucine, or a valine (V)-amino acid entity,chosen from L-valine or a salt thereof, or a dipeptide or salt thereof,or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising L-valine.
 52. The method ofclaim 31, wherein the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-aminoacid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC or salt thereof, orthe dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprisingNAC in the composition is, respectively, about 1-3:2-4:2-4:0.1-2.5. 53.The method of claim 31, wherein at least one of (a)-(e) is in a saltform in the composition.
 54. The method of claim 31, wherein thecomposition comprises 5 to 15 different amino acid entities.
 55. Themethod of claim 32, wherein administering the composition to the subjectactivates muscle protein synthesis and reduces muscle protein wasting.